Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience

Although a substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that emotional interference affects cognitive performance, relatively little is known about its temporal evolution and the respective brain regions underlying its regulation. The present study investigated the temporal dynamics of emotional interference and the contribution of prefrontal regions involved in its regulation. Forty-eight participants completed a 2-back task and a Set-switching task under neutral and negative emotional conditions while receiving sham, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), or ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) stimulation. Stimulation was administered either online during task performance or after a 5 min pre-task period. Consistent with previous findings, negative emotions impaired executive performance, particularly during high-demand updating conditions. Critically, time-resolved analyses revealed that emotional interference evolved dynamically throughout task performance and was differentially modulated by prefrontal stimulation. The most consistent stimulation effects emerged after approximately 10 minutes of cumulative stimulation exposure and varied as a function of the stimulation site, executive-control demands, and stimulation timing. Notably, online stimulation produced more consistent modulation than pre-task stimulation. Together, these findings indicate that both emotional interference and its neuromodulation are dynamic processes. More broadly, they suggest that the contribution of prefrontal control systems to emotion-cognition interactions may be better understood through their temporal evolution rather than through static measures of performance alone.

Pupillometry is commonly used to assess workload and fatigue, but its interpretation in applied, continuous-control tasks remains unclear because pupil responses are strongly shaped by task context and often lack a theory-guided interpretive basis. The Compensatory Control Model and Locus Coeruleus-Norepinephrine system offer complementary frameworks for interpreting pupil dynamics in relation to regulatory effort and engagement under sustained cognitive demand. We aimed to examine how tonic and phasic pupil dynamics reflect compensatory regulation following sustained cognitive demand, and how these dynamics relate to subsequent performance during continuous motor control. Participants completed two sessions consisting of a low- versus high- demand working-memory task followed by a joystick-based continuous motor-control task. Linear mixed-effects models tested demand effects on pupil dynamics and behavior and evaluated trial- level pupil-performance associations. Prior high demand produced small and specific changes in motor-control performance. Task-evoked pupil response showed effects of engagement dependent on prior demand and small associations with movement timing and accuracy. Our results show that pupil dynamics sensitively reflect sustained cognitive demand, but their trial-level predictive value for subsequent continuous motor performance is limited.

Making choices about whether and when to engage cognitive effort is a common feature of human everyday experience with important consequences for academic, career, and health outcomes. Yet, despite its importance, little is understood about the neurochemical mechanisms that underlie individual differences in the willingness to engage in cognitively effortful activities. To examine this question, we employed a multi-modal neuroimaging approach in which participants performed the Cognitive Effort Discounting paradigm (Cog-ED) while simultaneous PET-fMRI was acquired. We assessed both individual differences in dopamine-D2 receptor availability and brain activity during decision-making. In addition, the same participants performed a parametric working memory task (N-Back) and reported the cognitive effort associated with their daily life activities through a seven-day Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) protocol. The findings suggest a central role for caudate dopamine-D2 receptors in modulating cognitive effort-related motivation. People with higher caudate dopamine-D2 receptor availability had better working memory function, heightened sensitivity to effort costs, and greater modulation of brain activity during effort valuation. These laboratory findings also translated directly to daily life: higher levels of caudate dopamine-D2 receptors were associated with greater engagement in cognitively effortful activities. Together, the results suggest that how individuals determine the motivational value of cognitively effortful activities strongly depends on the dopamine system.

BACKGROUND: An individual's adaptation to threatening environments under uncertainty is reflected in stress responses. Predictability (the ability to anticipate events) and controllability (the ability to control outcomes) are central to how one adapts, yet their joint influence on aversive learning remains unclear. METHODS: Thirty healthy adults completed a probabilistic aversive learning task in which cue-outcome contingencies varied across levels of predictability and controllability, i.e. whether shock intensity depended on prediction accuracy. Prediction accuracy, reaction time, subjective stress ratings, and skin conductance responses were recorded throughout. Trial-wise learning dynamics were estimated using the Volatile Kalman Filter. RESULTS: Prediction accuracy reduced as environments became less predictable and negatively associated with higher learning rates across predictability levels, with the strongest relationship observed in highly predictable blocks. Skin conductance responses showed that moderately predictable environments elicited responses like those in highly predictable environments when accurate predictions reduced shock intensity, but resembled responses in unpredictable environments when shock intensity was uncontrollable. Model comparison revealed a double dissociation between subjective stress ratings and skin conductance responses. Subjective ratings were best explained by model-derived volatility when prediction accuracy determined shock intensity and by belief uncertainty when it was independent of prediction accuracy, whereas skin conductance responses showed the reverse pattern. Reaction times were best explained by belief uncertainty when predictions influenced shock intensity. Higher anxiety was associated with elevated learning rates in highly and moderately predictable blocks when predictions did not control shock intensity.

Motivational incentives are known to improve working memory (WM) when items differ in value, but whether they enhance performance when all items are equally valued, and if so, by what mechanism, remains unclear. Improvements could reflect enhanced memory-based representations or speed-accuracy trade-offs, whereby incentives promote slower, more cautious responding without improving memory itself. Here, we tested these alternatives across two experiments using an auditory WM task in which incentives varied across trials, but all items on a trial were equally incentivised. In Experiment 1,we allowed participants to resubmit their responses if desired. Reward-related improvements in WM performance were selectively observed when memory load was high, and only at serial positions associated with greater interference. These improvements were also dissociated from systematic response slowing and resubmission behaviour. This indicated that the benefits of incentives were unlikely to be attributable to response caution. Critically, in Experiment 2, motivational benefits persisted under strict response deadlines, where speed cannot be traded for accuracy. Computational modelling showed that reward selectively improved the precision of memory-based responses without reducing guessing. Together, these findings indicate that motivational incentives improve WM by enhancing the quality of memory-based representations, rather than by strategic slowing or altering response strategies.

Spontaneous eye blinks have long been linked to cognitive processing, yet how task demands shape blink timing and its relationship to behavioral performance remains unclear. We examined spontaneous blink behavior in 576 adults performing two variants of the Continuous Performance Task (CPT). Blink occurrence and timing were most strongly modulated by the experimental condition in the more demanding CPT-AX task, whereas their association with response time was stronger in the CPT-X task, where more consistent blink timing predicted faster responses. This dissociation suggests that task structure changes not only blink behavior but also the behavioral relevance of blink timing. These findings are consistent with an adaptive scheduling account of spontaneous blinking and provide a conceptual framework for understanding when and why blink timing contains chronometric information about ongoing cognition.

Creative performance fluctuates from moment to moment, suggesting that it depends partly on transient internal states present before creative thinking begins. Although such fluctuations have been identified in central neural activity, it remains unclear whether they are also reflected in autonomic physiology. We examined whether cardiac and electrodermal activity during a brief pre-trial resting period was associated with subsequent creative performance. Photoplethysmography, electrocardiography, and electrodermal activity were recorded while 28 participants completed the Alternative Uses Test and Fusion Innovation Test, assessing divergent and convergent creative thinking, respectively. Data from 27 participants was included in the analyses. Heart rate, heart rate variability, tonic skin conductance level, and phasic skin conductance activity were extracted from observation windows ranging from 11 to 30 s within a 30-s pre-trial rest period. Trial-level creativity was evaluated using GPT-based ratings of novelty, feasibility, and goal attainment. Linear mixed-effects models showed that higher pre-trial tonic skin conductance level was consistently associated with better subsequent creative performance across tasks, with overall model fit peaking at a 21-s observation window. Permutation-based feature-importance analysis provided convergent support for the contribution of tonic skin conductance, whereas the cardiac and phasic electrodermal indicators showed no reliable independent associations. However, the model explained only a small proportion of behavioral variance. These findings suggest that tonic sympathetic arousal reflects a momentary physiological state associated with creativity potential, while autonomic signals alone remain insufficient for accurate individual-level prediction.

Background: Substance use disorders (SUDs) are associated with impaired goal-directed decision-making, but the specific cognitive mechanisms underlying these deficits remain unclear. Forward planning, a key component of goal-directed control, requires strategies to contain computational demand and ensure feasibility through heuristics such as reducing planning depth, pruning unlikely options, and discounting probabilistic outcomes. This study investigated whether individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) and tobacco use disorder (TUD) differ from healthy controls in their use of these heuristics during sequential decision-making. Methods: We examined participants from the general population meeting criteria for at least moderate AUD (n = 45), TUD (n = 49), or both (n = 45), and compared them with matched healthy control groups. To assess forward planning, we used a previously published probabilistic three-step Markov decision task. Computational modeling was used to infer individual planning depths and compare model variants incorporating low-probability pruning, probability discounting, or both. Results: A combined model including both low-probability pruning and probability discounting best explained participants' behavior and was subsequently used for analysis. Compared to matched healthy controls, all groups with SUD exhibited significantly reduced planning depth. Moreover, individuals with SUD tended to show stronger probability discounting, with this effect reaching statistical significance in the comorbid group. Conclusion: Individuals with AUD and/or TUD engaged in forward planning using similar strategies as healthy controls but exhibited reduced planning depth and a tendency toward stronger probability discounting. These findings suggest the presence of altered planning processes in SUD, which could contribute to maladaptive decision-making. Future research is needed to clarify whether such differences reflect pre-existing cognitive traits, consequences of substance use, or both, and to explore their potential relevance for intervention.

In this study, we investigated the neural and behavioral basis of motivationally objective versus subjective value-based decisions. Using a within-subject fMRI design, healthy participants performed a risky decision-making task that elicited different levels of subjectivity in decision-making in two task conditions. In the Best or objective condition, choices were rewarded only when they were objectively best on a given trial, incentivizing decisions based on externally specified per-trial point maximization. In the Choice or subjective condition, participants received the reward associated with the chosen option, irrespective of how it compared to the unchosen option, allowing greater freedom to exercise subjective preferences in decision policy. Behaviorally, participants relied more on objectively optimal policy in the Best than the Choice condition. There was also a greater consensus across participants in behaviorally displayed and self-reported policies in the Best condition as well as a greater commitment to a single policy by individual participants in this condition, further confirming more objective behavior in the Best condition, compared to Choice. Moreover, behavioral inferences showed a greater agreement with self-report in the Best condition. Our fMRI results showed that the decision-making in Choice, relative to the Best condition, was associated with greater BOLD response in mid-cingulum/posterior cingulate cortex and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, suggesting their involvement in less externally constrained, or motivationally subjective, decision-making.

Effective decision-making requires evaluating options based on relevant features while reducing attention to those that are not. However, how attention prioritizes one source of information over another during value-based decisions remains unknown. Across 7 experiments, we show that irrelevant features both constructively and destructively interfered with how values are assigned to choice options. When relevant and irrelevant features agreed, choice accuracy and speed were facilitated; when they conflicted, accuracy decreased and choices slowed in proportion to the value of the irrelevant feature. We modeled this interference as a weighted sum of relevant and irrelevant feature values. This model explained individual differences in choice behavior and, critically, tracked psychiatric symptom severity related to substance abuse and obsessive-compulsive disorder. This suggests that these symptoms may, in part, reflect an impaired ability to weigh relevant against irrelevant information when assigning value to choice options - a process we term feature-based valuation.

How cognitive control influences the correction of motor errors is an important question. In this study, we examined how the slow and fast processes that constitute motor adaptation are modulated by cognitive load. To address this question, we used a novel approach that differed from traditional dual-task experiments that have assessed the role of fast processes by decreasing attention to the motor adaptation task. Here, cognitive load was manipulated using a decision-making task with easy and hard difficulty levels, while simultaneously adapting to a perturbation and maintaining attention on the task. Our results showed that the hard decision-making task increased cognitive load relative to the easy task, resulting in attenuated steady-state learning. The relative contributions of the fast and slow components were assessed using a dual state-space model, which showed that the former was larger under the high-load condition, whereas the latter was larger under the easy-load condition, consistent with a competition model in which a shared error signal is partitioned between the two processes. We also showed that the effect of cognitive load on fast processes was not attributable to increased reaction times or task performance. Taken together, these results support the notion that faster explicit motor adaptation processes derive from cognitive processes involved in action selection.

Anterior lateral prefrontal cortex (aLPFC) has been consistently implicated in retrieval monitoring and relational reasoning. However, it is unknown whether aLPFC supports a cognitive process that is common to memory retrieval and reasoning tasks. To inform this question, a first step is to ascertain whether there is, within individuals, spatial overlap in aLPFC between tasks. A prior study found overlap in activation of left aLPFC between verbal analogy and source memory retrieval tasks, using tightly matched word stimuli (Westphal et al., 2016). To assess whether this overlap in activation extends to other stimulus types and task designs, and another sensory modality, we collected fMRI data from 35 healthy young adults as they completed an associative memory retrieval task along with four variants of a relational reasoning paradigm that reliably engages left aLPFC. The reasoning tasks followed a 2 (visual/auditory modality) x 2 (spatial/featural relations) x 2 (low/high relational complexity) design. In the associative memory task, participants studied word pairs and decided whether the two words were related. At retrieval, they viewed pairs of previously seen words and judged whether the pair was Intact (words paired together at encoding) or Recombined (previously seen words recombined into new pairs). Response times were slower for Recombined vs. Intact pairs, consistent with heightened retrieval monitoring. As predicted, aLPFC was more active for Recombined than Intact pairs, as well as for the manipulation of relational complexity across the four reasoning tasks. A group-level conjunction analysis demonstrated substantial overlap between memory and reasoning manipulations in left aLPFC (Glasser parcels a47r, p47r, a10p, and p10p). Within individuals, clusters defined from the reasoning task were also sensitive to retrieval monitoring demands. Further, there was within-participant overlap in the pattern of active vertices, as measured via Dice coefficients. Bayes factor testing within each parcel of interest demonstrated greater vertex-level overlap than expected by chance, particularly in p47r. Importantly, degree of overlap varied widely among individuals, and exploratory results showed that both cluster-level activation and vertex overlap in p47r correlated with memory discriminability (d-prime). Thus, we hypothesize that neural overlap in this area reflects engagement in relational thinking during memory retrieval monitoring. Together, these results move beyond general characterizations of aLPFC function by testing whether it meets a precondition -- individual-level neural overlap across varied tasks -- of a unified neurocognitive function in support of reasoning and memory retrieval.

Larceny imposes profound societal and economic burdens; however, punitive judicial measures frequently fail to deter recidivism. The neurobehavioral mechanisms driving habitual offending, whether instrumental or kleptomanic, in theft recidivists remain poorly understood. In this study, we investigated explore-exploit decision-making and underlying reinforcement learning architectures in theft recidivists with a 4-arm bandit task while prefrontal cortex (PFC) hemodynamics were continuously monitored using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Model-free behavioral analyses revealed that non-kleptomanic (TR-K) but not kleptomanic (TR+K) theft recidivists accumulated significantly higher cumulative regret and made fewer optimal choices compared to control individuals without criminal records (CT). Model-based analyses through Variational Bayesian Analysis identified Q-learning with decay model as the optimal computational fit. Parameter extraction using the model demonstrated that the TR-K group exhibited a lower learning rate than CT and TR+K groups, indicating a learning deficit in updating action values following environmental feedback. fNIRS tracking of trial-by-trial latent reinforcement variables revealed that while PFC activity was modulated by these variables, group differences were characterized by static baseline hemodynamic shifts rather than rewirings of value-tracking neural circuits. These findings suggest that non-kleptomanic recurrent thefts may be associated with impaired reinforcement learning mechanisms, challenging current punitive deterrence models.

Despite the importance of sustaining attention focus throughout a task, sustained attention research demonstrates a rapid decline of task-focus with time-on-task. Separate research body highlights perceptual load as critical determinant of focused attention, showing that increased perceptual load draws more neural energy into task-relevant processing (Bruckmaier et al., 2020) and improves attention focus (Lavie, 2005). However, the effect of perceptual load on the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying time-on-task impact on sustained attention remains unknown. This was the aim of the present study. Participants performed a gradual continuous-performance task, detecting infrequent mountain scenes, among streams of city scenes, under either high or low perceptual load (with or without overlaid salt-and-pepper noise, respectively). EEG was recorded and parameterised into periodic and aperiodic components; the aperiodic 1/f slope linked with excitation-inhibition (E/I) balance: steeper slopes reflecting reduced E/I ratio (Gao et al., 2017). Time-on-task resulted in a wide-spread increase in alpha power, and a steeper 1/f slope in a left temporal-parietal cluster, accompanied by reduced detection sensitivity and increased response variability, as well as increased mind wandering, with reduced thoughts detail. Perceptual load improved task focus, as indexed by reduced mind wandering, but exacerbated the effect of time-on-task on detection sensitivity, and the 1/f slope, which was steeper with time-on-task in a right parieto-occipital cluster with increased load. Overall, the findings suggest that sustained attention decline with time-on-task can be attributed to depletion of neural energy needed for excitatory signalling, which is further drained with increased processing demands in tasks of high perceptual load.

People often must decide how long to continue waiting for rewards that will arrive at an uncertain time in the future. We propose that these persistence decisions involve weighing the benefits of continued waiting against opportunity costs of waiting, a balance that may shift over time. This framework suggests that persistence decisions share neural mechanisms with foraging decisions, which require ongoing comparisons between a current resource and possible alternatives. Dopamine and serotonin have been proposed to play opposing roles in foraging, with dopamine promoting exploration and serotonin promoting exploitation. Here we investigated their roles in persistence. In a within-subjects, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in young adults (n = 42), we examined the effects of increasing dopamine with L-dopa and increasing serotonin with escitalopram. We predicted that L-dopa would decrease persistence and escitalopram would increase it. Participants also completed patch-foraging, time perception, risk tolerance, and temporal discounting tasks to explore potential mechanisms of drug effects on persistence. Escitalopram increased persistence, after adjusting for the effects of anxiety and condition order, such that participants waited longer for rewards after taking the serotonergic drug. L-dopa did not influence persistence. In exploratory analyses controlling for age, however, L-dopa reduced persistence and increased exploration in foraging.

Sleep supports the consolidation of newly acquired information, however its role in the formation of self-beliefs has not yet been examined. Here, we investigated whether sleep facilitates the retention, stabilization, revision and long-term maintenance of newly formed ability beliefs. Using a Sleep vs. Wake between-subjects design (N=54), participants completed the Learning Of Own Performance (LOOP) task, which allowed them to form new positive and negative ability self-beliefs based on mocked feedback at a first session, and to revise them when encountering contradictory feedback at a second session. Belief formation was followed by either a sleep or wake retention interval. Belief states were tested at four time points: immediately after belief formation, after the 12-h retention interval, following the revision phase and after three weeks. Participants successfully formed and revised self-beliefs using the LOOP task. Compared with wakefulness, sleep following belief formation did not affect belief retention across the 12-h interval, nor did it stabilize beliefs against their revision. However, after three weeks, participants who slept after belief formation showed a shift towards more positivity for the initially formed low ability self-beliefs. Contrary to our hypotheses, sleep did not enhance short-term retention or stabilization of newly formed self-beliefs. However, the more positively recalled ability self-belief associated with the initially low-performance condition suggest that sleep may facilitate a positive long-term shift.

The bounded accumulation model is a dominant theoretical framework to characterize evidence accumulation during decision-making. Using a dynamic sequential tone accumulation (DSTA) task in marmosets, we found that the contribution of late tones to decisions was greater for weaker than for stronger evidence strength-an effect we term evidence-strength-dependent temporal weighting (ETW). Rigorous exclusionary analyses and drift-diffusion modeling further revealed that the bounded accumulation mechanism alone fails to account for this effect, and the online modulation of attentional engagement was identified as the necessary mechanism in addition to the bounded accumulation. Our work thus establishes that attentional engagement is adaptively modulated by evidence strength during complex decision-making.

Attention prioritizes relevant information from the environment, but does not do so consistently over time. Instead, we sometimes experience poor attentional states which are characterized by a higher degree of performance failures, or "lapses." The source of these lapses--whether they arise from attentional disengagement, failures of attentional selection, or simply failures of response control--is not clear. This study tests whether the strength of neural representations differs as a function of both attentional selection and modulation over time. We recorded electroencephalography (EEG) data while participants performed a sustained attention task requiring the selection of task-relevant items and withholding of responses to rare targets. Results show that relevant items receive prioritized processing in brain signals, as measured with EEG decoding. Yet, their neural representational fidelity weakens under poor sustained attentional states, foreshadowing upcoming behavioral failures. These findings support a neural basis of disengagement during poor attentional states, suggesting that lapses may arise from a decoupling of brain activity from task processing. Finally, pre-item representational strength predicted memory success for targets, suggesting that neural fidelity indexes an encoding-ready state. Results suggest that the quality of neural representations is affected by ongoing attention and plays a key role in processing and memory.

Background: As a key mechanism of disorder, clinical anxiety changes how a defensive motivation system functions in active threat coping contexts. Building on initial evidence that a lab-based escape/avoid preparation task is sensitive to disruptions in underlying defensive activation, current research moved toward implementation as a clinical assessment by testing if task responding predicts symptoms in anxiety treatment seekers. Methods: In our escape/avoid task, unpleasant images are shown after 5.5-second cues that indicate if the upcoming image can be prevented (avoid context), terminated after onset (escape context), or not controlled (no-control comparator). To assess defensive activation during response preparation/threat anticipation, a startle reflex indicator of such activation is probed during each cue. Guided by prior data, 125 individuals were classified into groups based on whether startle was enhanced 1) in a no-control, relative to avoid, context, and 2) in an escape, relative to avoid, context. To test clinical correlates, anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), depression (Beck Depression Inventory), and worry (Penn State Worry Questionnaire) were then compared across response groups. Results: Anxiety and worry were higher in participants with enhanced no-control and escape startle than in participants with enhanced no-control but not escape startle. Further, depression was higher in participants with under-enhancement of no-control startle than other groups. Finally, when comparing startle-based profiles to canonical questionnaire cut-off score-based groups, ~54-63% convergence emerged. Conclusions: Defensive profiling in escape/avoid contexts shows promise as a prognostic indicator, but a need to continue improving is also indicated. Possibilities to improve predictiveness and reliability are discussed.

This study examined whether emotional valence modulates face working memory precision in adolescents with specific learning disorders (SLD) and whether mnemonic distortions differ across subtypes. Fifty-four adolescents with SLD (dyslexia: n = 19; dysgraphia: n = 18; dyscalculia: n = 17) and 42 typically developing peers completed a morphed delayed reproduction task using sad, neutral, and happy faces. Using a von Mises + uniform mixture model, we decomposed recall errors into precision, systematic bias, and guessing. The SLD group made significantly larger errors (r = 8722;0.61) and responded more slowly (r = -0.33). Mixture modeling showed that deficits arose from reduced precision ({kappa}: TD M = 8.72 vs. SLD M = 4.15; r = 0.54) and stronger systematic bias toward neutrality (: TD M = -0.66 vs. SLD M = -4.15; r = 0.34), with no differences in random guessing. Valence flattening was consistently larger in SLD. Among subtypes, dyscalculia showed the greatest working memory impairment, yet all three exhibited the same valence flattening pattern. Thus, emotional faces disrupt face working memory in SLD through reduced precision and systematic affective distortion. The bias parameter from mixture modeling may offer a clinically useful metric for subtype-sensitive assessment.